King Arthur has captivated the popular imagination like few other legendary figures. Countless books, TV shows, movies, and video games based on Arthurian lore attest to his deep integration into global culture. Yet, a longstanding debate persists among scholars and enthusiasts: Did a historical King Arthur rule Britain during the Dark Ages?

The primary source for Arthurian legend is Geoffrey of Monmouth’s 12th-century work, “The History of the Kings of Britain.” While scant references to an “Arthur” exist in earlier documents, Geoffrey provides the first comprehensive account of Arthur’s life. According to Geoffrey, Arthur’s story begins with his conception at Tintagel Castle, where the wizard Merlin disguises King Uther Pendragon as Gorlois to be with Gorlois’ wife, Ygerna. Arthur ascends to the throne at 15 and leads Britons in battles against the Saxons, expanding his empire to Ireland, Iceland, Norway, and Gaul, before meeting his demise in battle against his nephew, Mordred.

However, Monmouth’s version omits familiar elements like Camelot, Lancelot, the Holy Grail, and the Knights of the Round Table. Miles Russell, an archaeologist at Bournemouth University, suggests that embellishments were added over time to make Arthur a more appealing figure. Russell describes Geoffrey’s Arthur as a “deeply unlikable sociopath,” more in line with Dark Age notions of kingship than medieval heroism.

Geoffrey’s account faces criticism from modern historians, who accuse him of inaccuracies or outright fabrication. Despite Monmouth’s claims of translating an ancient text, no such source has been found. Moreover, there’s no archaeological evidence supporting Arthur’s existence, even at Tintagel.

Russell posits that Monmouth drew from various ancient tales, characters, and episodes to fashion Arthur. The narrative echoes other legendary rulers, notably Ambrosius Aurelianus, who also resisted Anglo-Saxon invaders. Arthur, Russell argues, is a composite figure, blending elements from folklore, chronicles, and bardic poems into a patriotic British saga.